General Chemistry Notes-4

Calcination is heating strongly in the absence of air. Roasting is heating in the excess of air . Smelting, also called autoreduction, involves reduction of ores, usually oxides at elevated temperatures.

It is difficult to remove the earthy matter called gangue which contaminates an ore. This is done by adding to ore a substance called flux. Flux combines with gangue to form a molten product called slag, which can be easily removed.

An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals and is homogeneous in nature. For example Brass (Copper, Zinc), Bronze ( Copper, Tin) and Gun Metal ( Copper, Tin and Zinc) are examples of alloys.

An amalgam is a solution of metal in mercury. Sodium amalgam is used a reducing agent. Tin amalgam is used for making mirrors. Cadmium and Gold amalgam are used in dentistry.

A few elements like arsenic, Antimony, Boron, Silicon and Germanium behave both like metals and non-metals. These are called metalloids.

The five main causes of air pollution are carbon monoxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and sulphur oxides. Transportation sources are responsible for 74% of all carbon monoxide emissions. Use of Catalytic converter in two stages helps in eliminating pollutants from exhaust gases before they are discharged into atmosphere. In the first stage converter, Nitrogen Oxide is converted to Nitrogen and Ammonia in the presence of finally divided Platinum as a catalyst. In the second stage coverter, Hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide are completely oxidized to water and carbon dioxide in the presence of Platinum catalyst. Unleaded gasoline should be used as Platinum can be poisoned by the lead.

Much of Nitrogen Oxides and Sulphur Oxides entering into the atmosphere are converted into Nitric acid and Sulphuric acid. This will generate precipitation known as acid rain.

Urea is used as a fertilizer. DDT ( Dichloro-Di-Phenyl Trichloro Ethane) and BHC ( Benzene HexaChloride) , Melathion and parathion are used as pesticides. Zinc Phosphate and Barium Carbonate are used as rodenticides. Bordeaux Mixture ( copper Sulphate + Lime + Water) are used as fungicides.

General Biology Notes-4

Muscular System


1. Total Number of muscles in human body are 636.

2. Study of muscles is called Mycology.

3. Voluntary muscles are striped and are not independent. They are controlled by Spinal cord.

4. Involuntary muscles are smooth. They are concerned with the survival of the animal. They are controlled by autonomic nervous system.

5. Cardiac muscles are involuntary muscles but striped.

6. Muscles convert chemical energy ( glucose) into mechanical energy. In humans this conversion efficiency is 25%.

7. Muscle fatigue is the accumulation of lactic acid.

Transport System

8. Transportation in plants takes place through xylem and phloem tissues.

9. Loss of water through evaporation from plant body is called Traspiration

Human Circulatory System

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10. In human, heart pumps blood into arteries.

Image via Wikipedia

11. The aorta is the longest and largest artery in the body.

12. The pulmonary artery is the only artery that contains impure blood and carries it from right Ventricle to the lungs.

13. All veins except pulmonary veins carry impure that is deoxygenated blood.

14. The heart-beat consists of 2 phases systole and diastole.

15. In human adults at rest, the heart beats at the rate of 72 times per minute.

16. Blood pressure is 120mm of mercury in Systole and 80 mm of mercury in diastole.

17. The difference between systolic and diastolic pressure is called pulse pressure.

Blood

18. In adult man normally 5.6 liters of blood is formed.

19. The pH of blood is 7.4,

20. Mixture of RBC, WBC and platelets are there is plazma.

21. RBCs or Erythrocytes are round, biconcave and non-nucleated.

Image via Wikipedia

22. There are 4 to 6 m RBC/cubic ml of blood.

23. Life of RBC is 120 days.

24. They are formed in red bone marrow of short bones.

25. These are destroyed in liver Spleen.

26. Contain a protein called Haemoglobin which gives them red color.

27. People living in hilly areas have higher number of RBSc than persons living in plains.

Teeth and Bones

Teeth

-In lower vertibrates, the teeth are replaced continuously. This condition is called Polyphyodonty.

- Diphyodont is a condition in which there are only 2 definite sets of teeth.

Teeth Types

Incisiors are used for cutting and biting. Canines are used for stabbing. Premolars are used for cutting and Molars  are used for grinding.

Dental Formula:  Dental formula for Milk set for man is 2120/2120= total 20 teeth. For an adult man the dental formula is 2123/2123= Total 32 teeth.

Dental Trivia

1. First Milk Teeth to appear are Incisors while the first permanent teeth to appear is 1st Molar.

2. First Molar is the largest of all teeth while the third molar (last) which is also called the wisdom toot is the smallest.

3. Tusks of Elephats are modified incisor teeth.

4. African Elephants, both males and females have tusks while in India only males have them.

5. The prolonged teeth of Wild Boars are modified Canine Teeth.

Human Bones

The bone of brain box is called Cranium, Cheek bone is called Zygomatic bone, Upper jaw bone is called Maxilla, that of lower jaw is called Mandible. Collar bone is called Clavicle, Shoulder bone is called Scapulla, Hip Bones are named as Ilium, Ischium and Pubic. Knee bone is called Patella, chest bones are called Pectoral Glands, waist bones are called pelvic girdles. Upper arm bone is called Humerus, fore-arm bone are called Radius and Ulna. Wrist bones are called Carpals and Palm Meta Carpals. Finger bones are called Phalanges, thigh bone is called Femur, shank bones are called Tibia and Febula. Ankles are called Tarsals, sole bones are called meta tarsals, Foot-fingers are called phallanges and Sessamoid.

Bones Trivia

1. At the time of birth, the total of bones are 350 while in adults it is 206.

2. Each bone meets with other except Hyoid bone ( U-shaped) at the neck. It is helpful in crime identification.

3. Femur is the longest bone.

4. Vertebre are 26 bones in number

5. Stapes in tthe inner ear is the smallest bone.

Bone joints are of three types , Non-Movable as that found in Skull, Slightly movable as that found in Vertebra and Movable as found in hip and shoulder joints.

General Relief, Exogenetic Folds and Drainage

The Details of this post have been integrated into the book below!! 

General Studies Lecture Notes

 Geography

By

Priyank Goyal

Order Here

The present book is a compilation of the main points of the lectures given by Priyank Goyal in Geography to the students preparing for Indian and State Civil Services examinations.

This is meant to be used for quick revision of the topic just before examination or for daily brushing up of the points.

The details are derived from the notes made during the author's preparation of the Civil Services Examination which helped him in qualifying the prelims part of the examination twice.

This is equally helpful for students who are preparing for State Civil Service, Banking, Customs, Income Tax and other entrance examinations.

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President, Vice President of India

Government of the Union (Part-V)
Article (52-151) deals with: Executive, legislature, union judiciary and CAG.
The Union executive in India consists of President, the Vice-President, the council of ministers and the Attorney General of India.

The President

Electroral Procedure: It consists of elected members of the two houses of Parliament and elected members of all the SLA.

Value of vote of an MLA= (Population of the state)/Elected members of SLA X 1000

Value of vote of an MP= No of votes assigned to all MLA/ Total no of elected MPs

Election of president should be done by a secret ballot and based on a system of proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote.

Art 56: President term is 5 years. His term may terminate either by

-Resignation in writing to VP of India
-By impeachment.

Qualification: -Citizen of India
- 35 years of age
- Be qualified for election as member of LS
- Must not hold any office of profit.

President should not be a member of either house of parliament or a house of any state legislature. Salary 50,000 per month. Pension 3 Lakh/year

Impeachment:
- Either house may start the procedure.
- Can be brought not less than 2/3 of the total membership of the house.
- Also to be passed by at least 2/3 of the members.

Vacancy: - Due to some unnatural cause then
- VP
- Chief- Justice of India
- Senior- Most member of the SC.

The term ‘Executive Power’, actually refers to the power exercised by the council of Ministers in the name of the President.

The Vice President

- Vide Article 63
- Election: By an electoral collage of members of two houses of Parliament
- Qualification: Identical as of president of India except the candidate should be qualified to be a member of the Rajya Sabha.
- Term , Emoluments: 5 years. May terminate by resignation or by removal.
- Gets a salary of 40,000 Rs. Per month
- Functions as Ex-officio chairman of Rajya Sabha ( Article 64)

Notes on Indian National Movement-1

My lectures in Indian History have been integrated in the form of a book on Google Play. Have a Look !!!

Notes on General Chemistry-1

CHEMISTRY

SCOPE OF CHEMISTRY:

Deals with matter and the changes that matter undergoes when subjected to the action of heat light, electricity and other matter.
Elements: Substance which cannot be subdivided by any physical or chemical method.
Metals: Silver, Gold, copper sodium etc
Non metals: Oxygen, hydrogen sulphur etc.
Mixtures and compounds :
Iron + Sulphur = Mixture – Possesses both properties of iron and sulphur.
Iron + Sulphur-------------- Heated----FeS--- Compound- Properties of Iron and sulphur are lost.

Kinetic Theory of Matter: It says the pressure of a gas as due to bombardment of the wall of the vessel by the molecules of the gas.

Chemical Reactions:
Decomposition: (AB-------------- A+B)
Combination: (A + B--------------AB)
Double decomposition: (AB + CD----------- AD+ BC)
Displacement: (A +BC---------------- AC + B )

If the heat is evolved in a reaction it is called exothermic if heat is absorbed it is endothermic reaction.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE:
First given by John Dalton : says atom is indestructible.

Nucleas: Rutherford. The entire mass is concentrated in the nucleus which contain protons and neutrons, their total number equal to atomic mass.

The atomic number which is net positive charge on nucleus is equal to the number of protons.
Since the atom is electrically neutral , a number of electrons is equal to the number of the protons revolve around the nucleus.

Chemical Bonding: The force of attraction which binds the atoms in a molecule is called Chemical bonding.

Isotopes: They are atoms of the same element having the same atomic number but different atomic masses. They differ in the number of neutrons in the nucleus.

Nuclear fission: When certain heavy atoms like Uranium are bombarded with high velocity neutrons, new fast moving neutrons are released along with a large amount of energy. This process is called neuclear fission.

If all the neutrons are used in producing more fission a rapid and violent reaction takes place. This is the basis of the atomic bomb.

Nuclear Fusion: The two isotopes of hydrogen eg. Deutruim and Tririum react to produce, helium, neutron and a flood of energy. This is called fusion, and forms the basis of H-bomb.

Oxidation and Reduction:
Occur side by side.
Wherever there is oxidation, there is reduction.
When Chlorine oxidized Hydrogen sulphide to Sulphur, Hydrogen Sulphide reduces Chlorine to Hydrogen Chloride. Cl2 + H2S--------------- 2HCl + S

Oxidation: Removal of hydrogen or addition of oxygen or removal of electrons.
Reduction: Addition of hydrogen or removal or oxygen or addition of electrons.

Mathces: Side of the Box: Red phosphorous or phosphorous trisulphide.
Match Sticks: Impregnated with borax- so that they can be extinguished without glowing for a long time.

Heavy Water:
Discovered by Urey.
Contains heavy hydrogen atom i.e deuterium(D)
Formula D2O
Density 1.106

Used in Nuclear reactors to absorb neutrons

Notes on Indian History: Indus Valley Civilisation

My lectures in Indian History have been integrated in the form of a book on Google Play. Have a Look !!!

Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties, Directive Principles of State Policy

Constitutional Rights for Indian Citizens

- Fundamental rights under articles 15, 16, 19
- Some important posts reserved
- right to vote

The Parliament has passed a bill on dual citizenship for persons of Indian Origin ( PIO) living abroad.

Fundamental Duties

--> By 42nd Amendment, part IV A, Aticle 51 A
--> There are 10 fundamental duties.
--> Justice Verma Committee had recommended for enforcement of Fundamental duties by the citizens.

Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP)

-> From Article 37- Article 51
-> Part IV of the Constitution

DPSP as mentioned in other parts of the constitution:

-> Article 350: Providing primary education in mother tongue for people of minority class
-> Article 351: Duty to spread Hindi Language amongst people of India
-> Article 335: To appoint SC, ST in state and union services

DPSP are  Affected by Western Liberalism

Some Important DPSPs

Article 44: Uniform Civil Code
Article 45: Free and Compulsory Education for Children
Article 50: Separation of Judiciary from Public Services
Article 51: Development of International peace and Security
Article 49: Protection of National and Historical Monuments

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