General Chemistry Notes-4

Calcination is heating strongly in the absence of air. Roasting is heating in the excess of air . Smelting, also called autoreduction, involves reduction of ores, usually oxides at elevated temperatures.

It is difficult to remove the earthy matter called gangue which contaminates an ore. This is done by adding to ore a substance called flux. Flux combines with gangue to form a molten product called slag, which can be easily removed.

An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals and is homogeneous in nature. For example Brass (Copper, Zinc), Bronze ( Copper, Tin) and Gun Metal ( Copper, Tin and Zinc) are examples of alloys.

An amalgam is a solution of metal in mercury. Sodium amalgam is used a reducing agent. Tin amalgam is used for making mirrors. Cadmium and Gold amalgam are used in dentistry.

A few elements like arsenic, Antimony, Boron, Silicon and Germanium behave both like metals and non-metals. These are called metalloids.

The five main causes of air pollution are carbon monoxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and sulphur oxides. Transportation sources are responsible for 74% of all carbon monoxide emissions. Use of Catalytic converter in two stages helps in eliminating pollutants from exhaust gases before they are discharged into atmosphere. In the first stage converter, Nitrogen Oxide is converted to Nitrogen and Ammonia in the presence of finally divided Platinum as a catalyst. In the second stage coverter, Hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide are completely oxidized to water and carbon dioxide in the presence of Platinum catalyst. Unleaded gasoline should be used as Platinum can be poisoned by the lead.

Much of Nitrogen Oxides and Sulphur Oxides entering into the atmosphere are converted into Nitric acid and Sulphuric acid. This will generate precipitation known as acid rain.

Urea is used as a fertilizer. DDT ( Dichloro-Di-Phenyl Trichloro Ethane) and BHC ( Benzene HexaChloride) , Melathion and parathion are used as pesticides. Zinc Phosphate and Barium Carbonate are used as rodenticides. Bordeaux Mixture ( copper Sulphate + Lime + Water) are used as fungicides.

General Biology Notes-4

Muscular System


1. Total Number of muscles in human body are 636.

2. Study of muscles is called Mycology.

3. Voluntary muscles are striped and are not independent. They are controlled by Spinal cord.

4. Involuntary muscles are smooth. They are concerned with the survival of the animal. They are controlled by autonomic nervous system.

5. Cardiac muscles are involuntary muscles but striped.

6. Muscles convert chemical energy ( glucose) into mechanical energy. In humans this conversion efficiency is 25%.

7. Muscle fatigue is the accumulation of lactic acid.

Transport System

8. Transportation in plants takes place through xylem and phloem tissues.

9. Loss of water through evaporation from plant body is called Traspiration

Human Circulatory System

Image via Wikipedia

10. In human, heart pumps blood into arteries.

Image via Wikipedia

11. The aorta is the longest and largest artery in the body.

12. The pulmonary artery is the only artery that contains impure blood and carries it from right Ventricle to the lungs.

13. All veins except pulmonary veins carry impure that is deoxygenated blood.

14. The heart-beat consists of 2 phases systole and diastole.

15. In human adults at rest, the heart beats at the rate of 72 times per minute.

16. Blood pressure is 120mm of mercury in Systole and 80 mm of mercury in diastole.

17. The difference between systolic and diastolic pressure is called pulse pressure.

Blood

18. In adult man normally 5.6 liters of blood is formed.

19. The pH of blood is 7.4,

20. Mixture of RBC, WBC and platelets are there is plazma.

21. RBCs or Erythrocytes are round, biconcave and non-nucleated.

Image via Wikipedia

22. There are 4 to 6 m RBC/cubic ml of blood.

23. Life of RBC is 120 days.

24. They are formed in red bone marrow of short bones.

25. These are destroyed in liver Spleen.

26. Contain a protein called Haemoglobin which gives them red color.

27. People living in hilly areas have higher number of RBSc than persons living in plains.

Geography-4

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General Studies Lecture Notes

 Geography

By

Priyank Goyal

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The present book is a compilation of the main points of the lectures given by Priyank Goyal in Geography to the students preparing for Indian and State Civil Services examinations.

This is meant to be used for quick revision of the topic just before examination or for daily brushing up of the points.

The details are derived from the notes made during the author's preparation of the Civil Services Examination which helped him in qualifying the prelims part of the examination twice.

This is equally helpful for students who are preparing for State Civil Service, Banking, Customs, Income Tax and other entrance examinations.

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Indian History-4

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Indian Polity-4

Indian Polity-3

1. Joint session of the house is conducted:

a. After every general election

b. In the beginning of first session

c. When one house passes a bill while the other house rejects or does not give assent for six months.

2. A joint Session is presided over by the speaker of the Lok Sabha.

3. The first hour of every sitting in both houses is devoted to asking and answering of questions. This is called Question Hour.

4. The immediately following Question Hours is called Zero Hour. It starts at 12 O’clock and press gave the name ‘zero hour’.

5. There are three categories of questions

a. Starred questions can be answered orally on the floor of the house.

b. An unstarred question, which does not carry an asterisk mark, is not given orally but in written form.

c. A short notice question can be asked with notice shorter than the ten days prescribed for an ordinary question.

6. Half an hour discussion can be held in Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.

7. There are three types of motions

a. Call Attention Motion: A member may call the attention of a minister on an urgent matter through this motion.

b. Adjournment Motion: If speaker agrees, a matter of urgent public importance can be brought before the house, by interrupting the regular business.

c. No-confidence Motion: It expresses a lack of confidence of the Lok Sabha in the council of ministers.

d. Cut Motion is a device to initiate discussions and demands for grants.

8. Only five states have legislative council namely: Bihar, UP, Karnataka, Maharastra and J &K.

9. 5/6 members of Vidhan Parishad are elected directly while 1/6 of them are nominated by the governer.

10. The term of the Vidhan Sabha is fixed for 5 years, but for J & K it is 6 years.

Indian National Movement Notes-3

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General Chemistry Notes-3

Chemistry Notes-3

Image via Wikipedia

1. Ammonia is manufactured by the Haber Process

2. Full Name of TNT, an explosive is Trinitrotoluene

3. Trinitrophenol, which is used as an explosive and antiseptic is also known as Picric Acid.

4. Nessler’s Reagent is used for the test of Ammonia and Ammonium Salt. It gives brown precipitates

5. Nitric Acid ( HNO3) is manufactured by Electric Arc Process.

6. The process of Petroleum refining is called as a fractional distillation

7. There are various products having different boiling points which are obtained during fractional distillation. At a boiling point of 30 to 70 celcius there is Petroleum Ether which is used as solvent for drycleaning. At a boiling point of 70 to 120 degrees celcius, there is Petrol or gasoline which is used as a motor fuel and general solvent. At a boiling point of 120 to 150 degrees celcius, there is Benzoline which is also a solvent. Then there is Kerosene at 150 to 300 degrees celcius which is used as an illuminant and as a fuel. And Finally above 300 degrees celcius as boiling point, we have Lubricating oil, vasaline and paraffin wax which are used as lubricant, grease and wax.

8. Petrol is obtained by a process called cracking. In this process kerosene and crude oil are broken up into low boiling point hydrocarbons such as Octane and Heptane.

9. To prevent knocking in petrol engine, an antiknock agent such as Tetraethyl lead is added. Now in lead free oils it is not used as it also harms catalytic converters.

10. Iron commonly have three forms, first form which is the crudest form is cast iron containing 2 to 5 percent carbon. Then there is steel which has 0.15 to 1.5% of carbon. Wrought iron is the purest form of iron having 0.12 to 0.25 percent of carbon.

11. On exposure to moist air, in the presence of carbon dioxide, iron is converted into brown hydrated iron oxide ( Fe2O3. 10 H2O). This process is called rusting.

12. Stainless steel contains 13% chromium.

13. Acids are generally sour, turn blue litmus red and generally give hydrogen with metals.

14. An acid is a substance which furnishes H+ ion on dissolving with water. It is proton donor and an electon acceptor.

15. Bases react with Acids to produce salt and water. They turn red litmus blue. They are also called alkalies eg. NaOH.

16. A base is defined as proton acceptor and an electron donor.

17. pH is negative logarithm of H ions. pH of neutral solutions is 7. For acidic solutions, pH is between 0 and 7 and for alkaline solutions it is between 7-14.

18. Metals occur in nature as chemical compounds called minerals. If these minerals are used as the starting material for extracting the metal, they are called ores.

Teeth and Bones

Teeth

-In lower vertibrates, the teeth are replaced continuously. This condition is called Polyphyodonty.

- Diphyodont is a condition in which there are only 2 definite sets of teeth.

Teeth Types

Incisiors are used for cutting and biting. Canines are used for stabbing. Premolars are used for cutting and Molars  are used for grinding.

Dental Formula:  Dental formula for Milk set for man is 2120/2120= total 20 teeth. For an adult man the dental formula is 2123/2123= Total 32 teeth.

Dental Trivia

1. First Milk Teeth to appear are Incisors while the first permanent teeth to appear is 1st Molar.

2. First Molar is the largest of all teeth while the third molar (last) which is also called the wisdom toot is the smallest.

3. Tusks of Elephats are modified incisor teeth.

4. African Elephants, both males and females have tusks while in India only males have them.

5. The prolonged teeth of Wild Boars are modified Canine Teeth.

Human Bones

The bone of brain box is called Cranium, Cheek bone is called Zygomatic bone, Upper jaw bone is called Maxilla, that of lower jaw is called Mandible. Collar bone is called Clavicle, Shoulder bone is called Scapulla, Hip Bones are named as Ilium, Ischium and Pubic. Knee bone is called Patella, chest bones are called Pectoral Glands, waist bones are called pelvic girdles. Upper arm bone is called Humerus, fore-arm bone are called Radius and Ulna. Wrist bones are called Carpals and Palm Meta Carpals. Finger bones are called Phalanges, thigh bone is called Femur, shank bones are called Tibia and Febula. Ankles are called Tarsals, sole bones are called meta tarsals, Foot-fingers are called phallanges and Sessamoid.

Bones Trivia

1. At the time of birth, the total of bones are 350 while in adults it is 206.

2. Each bone meets with other except Hyoid bone ( U-shaped) at the neck. It is helpful in crime identification.

3. Femur is the longest bone.

4. Vertebre are 26 bones in number

5. Stapes in tthe inner ear is the smallest bone.

Bone joints are of three types , Non-Movable as that found in Skull, Slightly movable as that found in Vertebra and Movable as found in hip and shoulder joints.

General Relief, Exogenetic Folds and Drainage

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General Studies Lecture Notes

 Geography

By

Priyank Goyal

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The present book is a compilation of the main points of the lectures given by Priyank Goyal in Geography to the students preparing for Indian and State Civil Services examinations.

This is meant to be used for quick revision of the topic just before examination or for daily brushing up of the points.

The details are derived from the notes made during the author's preparation of the Civil Services Examination which helped him in qualifying the prelims part of the examination twice.

This is equally helpful for students who are preparing for State Civil Service, Banking, Customs, Income Tax and other entrance examinations.

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The Sangam Age and Buddhism

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Council of Ministers, Attorney General, Union Legislature, Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha

The Council of Ministers

• Article 74 of the constitution says that there shall be a council of ministers, with the PM at the head, to aid and advise the president, who shall, in the exercise of his functions, act in according with such advice.

• The Word 'cabinet' was not used in the constitution till the 44th Amendment. Found a place in Article 352.

• Collective responsibility: It says that council of ministers is collectively responsible to the house of the people.

• Individual responsibility: Thus ministers are individually responsible to the executive and may be dismissed even if they enjoy the confidence of the legislature.

• Article 78 clearly stipulates that it is the duty of the PM to communicate to the president all decisions of Council of Ministers.

The Attorney General

- First law officer of the Govt. of India

- Qualifications: Same as the Judge of a SC

- Right to audience in all courts.

- Gives advice on legal matters to president

- Not a member of the cabinet

- Has a right to speak in the parliament

- No right to vote in it.

Union Legislature ( Part-V)

 According to article 79, the parliament of India consists of the president and the two houses.

Rajya Sabha

- Council of State

- Consists of not more than 250 members     

- 12 members are nominated by president

- At Present 245 members

- Only two UT Delhi and Pondicherry is given representation

- Not subject to dissolution

- Terms of individual members is 6 years

- 1/3 of its members retire at expiration of every 2nd year.

- Enjoys equal status with LS except during some special case.

The Lok Sabha

- Max Strength 552

- 530 members chosen by direct elections from state

- 20 members from UT

Two members of Anglo-Indian Community - Nominated by the president

- At present there are 545 members

- Fixed term of five years

- When proclamation of emergency is in force, the term of LS can be extended for a period not exceeding one year at a time and in any case a period of six months after the proclamation has ceased to operate.

- Speaker - Chief officer of Lok Sabha

- President can prorogue the two houses

- The quorum constitute a sitting is one-tenth of the total membership.   

Indian National Movement Notes-2

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Chemistry Notes for Prelims-2

Deliquescence and Efflorescence

* Solids like NaOH and Cacl₂ become damp on exposure to moist air. Such substances are called deliquescent substances.

* On the other hand, crystals of washing soda loses a part of water of crystallisation (Na₂CO₃ . 10 H₂O) and crumble into powder. Such substances are called efflorescent substances. 

_{FIRE EXTINGUISHERS} 

Two methods of extinguishing a fire are:

a. Cutting off the supply of air.

b. Cooling the flames below the ignition temperature.

types:

Ordinary: Mixture of Water and CO₂ 

Foam Type: Fire covered by foam of oil and Sodium Bicarbonate.

Electrical Fires: Heavy Carbon Tetrachloride is put on fire.

COMBUSTION: It is the process of burning accompanied by the liberation of heat and light.

* It may take place in the presence of gases which support combustion eg.Oxygen or Chlorine.

* Farther the substance which burns must be raised to a particular temperature called ignition temperature.

EXPLOSION: It is sudden expansion of gases with a loud noise, owing to release of internal energy.

COMPOSITION OF AIR: Nitrogen: 78%, Oxygen: 21%, Argon: 0.9%

* Air is only a mixture and is not a compound.

* Oil contains unsaturated compounds. They add hydrogen and are converted into solid fats. This hydrogenation of oil is called 'vanaspati'.   

Peculiar Properties of Water: Even though molecular weight of water is low, it has unusually high boiling point. It is denser than ice.

Solid CO₂ used in refrigerators is called dry ice.

Carbonic Acid  is also known as soda water.

A Fuel is a substance that is used to produce heat energy.

Carbon Cycle: During day time , plants take up CO₂ from air and return oxygen. At night the plants take in oxygen and gives out CO₂. This cycle serves to maintain the % of  CO₂ in air fairly constant.  

Gobar Gas: Obtained by fermentation of cow dung and water, inside a pit in the absence of air, also called 'biogas' used for running cooking, tubewells etc.

Aqua Regia: A mixture of Conc. HCl and conc. HNO₃ in the ratio of 3:1 is called aqua regia. It can dissolve Gold and Platinum.

Laughing Gas: Nitrous Oxide: When inhaled, produce laughing. Used as anesthetic   

General Biology Notes-2

Plants

Plants are divided into three parts:

1. Autotrophic

2. Heterotrophic

3. Insectivorous

Heterotrophic plants are divided into two parts Parasites- Which are totally dependent on living plants and animals and Saprophytes- Depend on dead and rotting organic remains of plants and animals.

Plants Micro Nutrients

1. N₂ : Deficiency leads to decrease in angle between the stem and the leaf.

2. P: leads to abnormal color of leaf

3. Ca: Deficiency : Leaves appear abnormal in form or often show scorching or spotting effect.

4. Fe: Acute deficiency leads to scorching of leaf margins and tips. Mild deficiency leads to mottled patterns on leaf.

5. Mn: Deficiency leads to poorly developed root system.

6. Zn: In citrus plants, its deficiency causes mottled leaves.

7. Boron (B): Its deficiency leads to "Heart rot of suger beet and marigold"

Digestive, Teeth, Skeleton and Muscular System

Digestive System

The canal or body parts in which digestion takes place is called Alimentary Canal. It starts from mouth, and passing through Oesophagus (food pipe), stomach and small intestine finally ends into large intestine. Absorption of digested food mainly takes place in small intestines. Undigested and unabsorbed material then passes down the colon and rectum which absorb the excess water and with the help of putrefying bacteria form faeces. Finally the faeces passes out through the anus.

Human Digestive Enzymes

Parts	Digestive Juice	Enzyme present
Mouth	Saliva	Ptylin
Stomach	Gastric Juice	Pepsin+ HCL, Renin, Gastric Lipose
Liver	Bile Juice	No Enzyme
Pancreas	Pancreatic Juice	Trypsin, Amylase, Pancreatic
Small Intestine	Succus Entericus	Peptidases, Invertase, Lipase, Maltase, Lactase

- Digestion changes proteins into amino acids, carbohydrates into Monosaccharide glucose, fructose into galactose and fats into fatty acids and glycerols.

- Digestion of proteins is initiated in the stomach by the act of the enzyme pepsin.

- More than 50% of the energy content of the common diet comes from carbohydrates.

- For a normal person about 70 g of proteins and about 400-500 gms of carbohydrates are recommended.

Indian Geography-2

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General Studies Lecture Notes

 Geography

By

Priyank Goyal

Order Here

The present book is a compilation of the main points of the lectures given by Priyank Goyal in Geography to the students preparing for Indian and State Civil Services examinations.

This is meant to be used for quick revision of the topic just before examination or for daily brushing up of the points.

The details are derived from the notes made during the author's preparation of the Civil Services Examination which helped him in qualifying the prelims part of the examination twice.

This is equally helpful for students who are preparing for State Civil Service, Banking, Customs, Income Tax and other entrance examinations.

Order Here

Later Vedic Age

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President, Vice President of India

Government of the Union (Part-V)
Article (52-151) deals with: Executive, legislature, union judiciary and CAG.
The Union executive in India consists of President, the Vice-President, the council of ministers and the Attorney General of India.

The President

Electroral Procedure: It consists of elected members of the two houses of Parliament and elected members of all the SLA.

Value of vote of an MLA= (Population of the state)/Elected members of SLA X 1000

Value of vote of an MP= No of votes assigned to all MLA/ Total no of elected MPs

Election of president should be done by a secret ballot and based on a system of proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote.

Art 56: President term is 5 years. His term may terminate either by

-Resignation in writing to VP of India
-By impeachment.

Qualification: -Citizen of India
- 35 years of age
- Be qualified for election as member of LS
- Must not hold any office of profit.

President should not be a member of either house of parliament or a house of any state legislature. Salary 50,000 per month. Pension 3 Lakh/year

Impeachment:
- Either house may start the procedure.
- Can be brought not less than 2/3 of the total membership of the house.
- Also to be passed by at least 2/3 of the members.

Vacancy: - Due to some unnatural cause then
- VP
- Chief- Justice of India
- Senior- Most member of the SC.

The term ‘Executive Power’, actually refers to the power exercised by the council of Ministers in the name of the President.

The Vice President

- Vide Article 63
- Election: By an electoral collage of members of two houses of Parliament
- Qualification: Identical as of president of India except the candidate should be qualified to be a member of the Rajya Sabha.
- Term , Emoluments: 5 years. May terminate by resignation or by removal.
- Gets a salary of 40,000 Rs. Per month
- Functions as Ex-officio chairman of Rajya Sabha ( Article 64)

Notes on Indian National Movement-1

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Notes on General Chemistry-1

CHEMISTRY

SCOPE OF CHEMISTRY:

Deals with matter and the changes that matter undergoes when subjected to the action of heat light, electricity and other matter.
Elements: Substance which cannot be subdivided by any physical or chemical method.
Metals: Silver, Gold, copper sodium etc
Non metals: Oxygen, hydrogen sulphur etc.
Mixtures and compounds :
Iron + Sulphur = Mixture – Possesses both properties of iron and sulphur.
Iron + Sulphur-------------- Heated----FeS--- Compound- Properties of Iron and sulphur are lost.

Kinetic Theory of Matter: It says the pressure of a gas as due to bombardment of the wall of the vessel by the molecules of the gas.

Chemical Reactions:
Decomposition: (AB-------------- A+B)
Combination: (A + B--------------AB)
Double decomposition: (AB + CD----------- AD+ BC)
Displacement: (A +BC---------------- AC + B )

If the heat is evolved in a reaction it is called exothermic if heat is absorbed it is endothermic reaction.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE:
First given by John Dalton : says atom is indestructible.

Nucleas: Rutherford. The entire mass is concentrated in the nucleus which contain protons and neutrons, their total number equal to atomic mass.

The atomic number which is net positive charge on nucleus is equal to the number of protons.
Since the atom is electrically neutral , a number of electrons is equal to the number of the protons revolve around the nucleus.

Chemical Bonding: The force of attraction which binds the atoms in a molecule is called Chemical bonding.

Isotopes: They are atoms of the same element having the same atomic number but different atomic masses. They differ in the number of neutrons in the nucleus.

Nuclear fission: When certain heavy atoms like Uranium are bombarded with high velocity neutrons, new fast moving neutrons are released along with a large amount of energy. This process is called neuclear fission.

If all the neutrons are used in producing more fission a rapid and violent reaction takes place. This is the basis of the atomic bomb.

Nuclear Fusion: The two isotopes of hydrogen eg. Deutruim and Tririum react to produce, helium, neutron and a flood of energy. This is called fusion, and forms the basis of H-bomb.

Oxidation and Reduction:
Occur side by side.
Wherever there is oxidation, there is reduction.
When Chlorine oxidized Hydrogen sulphide to Sulphur, Hydrogen Sulphide reduces Chlorine to Hydrogen Chloride. Cl2 + H2S--------------- 2HCl + S

Oxidation: Removal of hydrogen or addition of oxygen or removal of electrons.
Reduction: Addition of hydrogen or removal or oxygen or addition of electrons.

Mathces: Side of the Box: Red phosphorous or phosphorous trisulphide.
Match Sticks: Impregnated with borax- so that they can be extinguished without glowing for a long time.

Heavy Water:
Discovered by Urey.
Contains heavy hydrogen atom i.e deuterium(D)
Formula D2O
Density 1.106

Used in Nuclear reactors to absorb neutrons

Notes on General Biology

NUTRITION AND DIET
The green plants and a few types of bacteria which are completely self supporting are called autotrophs.
This mode of nutrition in green plants is achieved mainly by the process of photosynthesis.
All animals including men and non-green plants show heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
Hetrotrophs obtain all their energy requirements mainly from organic substances like carbohydrates and fats.

FOOD
Energy yielding food: Carbohydrates and fats
Body building food: Protein and Minerals
Protective food: Vitamins and minerals

Carbohydrates:
One Gram of carbohydrate provides 4.1 Cal.
Manufactured by green plants cia photosynthesis.
Lever converts carbohydrates into glycogen and stores in itself and muscles.
Gycogen is known as animal starch as it is not produced in plants.
Excess carbohydrates is converted to fats.

Fats:
One gram of fat provides 9.3 calories of energy.
Stored as future foods.

Proteins
There are made of amino acids which are the only source of nitrogen in the body.
Amino Acids were discovered by William Rash of USA
One gram of protein provides 4.1 calories.
Proteins are raw material for manufacturing of Hormones, enzymes, antibodies etc.

Minerals:
Vitamins and Minerals are called micronutrients while protein, carbohydrates and fats are called macronutrients.
Ca and P form about ¾ of minerals.
Phosphorous: Metabolism
K and Mg: Muscle Contraction
Na and K: Propagation of nerve impulse and for water balance of the body.
Iron: Raw material for RBC
Iodine: thyroid Glands functioning

Mineral Deficiency Diseases
Anemia: Iron deficiency
Rickets : Calcium
Goiter: Deficiency of Iodine.

Water:
An average man contains about 45 litre of water which is 70% of body weight.

Vitamin:
Funk for the first time used the word Vitamin.
Vitamin A, D, E, K:- Fat soluble
Vitamin B and C:- Water soluble

Vitamin (A) (Retinol) :
Sources: Cod lever oil, egg yolk, yellow vegetables.
Deficiency symptoms: Night Blindness, Xerophthalmia.

Vitamin (B) ( Thiamine):
Sources: Grains, meats, green vegetable.
Deficiency symptoms: Beriberi

Vitamin (C) ( Ascorbic acid):
Sources: Citrus fruits.
Deficiency symptoms: Scurvy (Spongy Gums)

Vitamin (D) ( Calcipherol):
Sources: Animal oil and U-V Rays.
Deficiency symptoms: Rickets, Osteomalacia.

Vitamin (E) ( Tocopherol):
Sources: Unpolished grain, animal and vegetable oil and wheat.
Deficiency symptoms: Muscular Paralysis.

Vitamin (K) ( Kgluation or Coagulation):
Sources: Leafy vegetables.
Deficiency symptoms: Improper coagulation of blood,
Lathyrism: Caused by a neurotoxin, found in Kesri Dal

Notes on Indian Geography

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General Studies Lecture Notes

 Geography

By

Priyank Goyal

Order Here

The present book is a compilation of the main points of the lectures given by Priyank Goyal in Geography to the students preparing for Indian and State Civil Services examinations.

This is meant to be used for quick revision of the topic just before examination or for daily brushing up of the points.

The details are derived from the notes made during the author's preparation of the Civil Services Examination which helped him in qualifying the prelims part of the examination twice.

This is equally helpful for students who are preparing for State Civil Service, Banking, Customs, Income Tax and other entrance examinations.

Order Here

Notes on Early Vedic Age

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Notes on Indian History: Indus Valley Civilisation

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Notes on Fundamental Rights

Fundamental Rights
Part III of the Indian Constitution( A 12-35) deals with the FR granted to individuals.
Originally seven groups of rights. But now 44th Amendment ‘Right to property’ deleted.
1) Right to equality and liberty : Art (14-18)
14: Equality before law
15: Prohibition of discrimination
16: Equality of opportunity
17: Abolishes practices of untouchability
18: Prohibits state from confirming any title

2) Right to Freedom. (19-22)
-Freedom of speech and expression
-Freedom of Assembly
-Freedom to form associations
-Freedom to move freely throughout India
-Freedom to reside and settle in any part of the country
-Freedom to practice any profession

3) Right against Exploitation (23-24)
Art 23: Prohibits traffic against human beings and beggar
Art 24: Prohibits employment of children below 14 years of age in factories mines etc.

4) Right of Freedom of Religion (25-28)

5) Right for Culture and Education (Article 29-30)

6) Right to Constitutional Remedies(Article 32)

• Dr Ambedkar call article 32 as “the very soul of the constitution and the very heart of it”.

• In Golaknath case in 1967, the SC ruled that parliament has no power to amend any of the provisions of part III so as to take away or abridge fundamental rights as guaranteed by the constitution.

• In Keshawnand Bharti case, the SC ruled that parliament has power to amend, but it can not destroy the basic structure of the constitution.

• In T.K,Rangarajan Vs Govt of TN and others, SC observed that govt employees including doctors working in state run hospitals and dispensaries have no “fundamental, legal, moral or equitable right to go on strike even for a just cause".

Distinction between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles

*Fundamental Rights are justifiable while Directive Principles are not.

* Fundamental Rights are negative and Directive Principles are positive.

* Fundamental Rights responsible for political democracy while Directive Principles are for establishment of economical and welfare state.

* If there is discrepancy between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles then Fundamental Rights will prevail.

The Writs:
Habeas Corpus: “To have a body”- An order calling a person who has detained another to produce the letter before the court to let it know, on what ground he has been confirmed.

Prohibition : It is issued by SC or HC to a inferior court forbidding jurisdiction or to usurp a jurisdiction with which it is not legally vested.

Mandamus: ”We command” : Commands the person to whom it is addressed to perform some public or quasilegal duty which he has refused to perform.

Certiorary: It is issued to a lower court after a case has been decided by it, quashing the decision or order.
Qua-Wananto: It is a proceeding by which the court enquires into the legality of the claim which a party asserts to a public office.

Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties, Directive Principles of State Policy

Constitutional Rights for Indian Citizens

- Fundamental rights under articles 15, 16, 19
- Some important posts reserved
- right to vote

The Parliament has passed a bill on dual citizenship for persons of Indian Origin ( PIO) living abroad.

Fundamental Duties

--> By 42nd Amendment, part IV A, Aticle 51 A
--> There are 10 fundamental duties.
--> Justice Verma Committee had recommended for enforcement of Fundamental duties by the citizens.

Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP)

-> From Article 37- Article 51
-> Part IV of the Constitution

DPSP as mentioned in other parts of the constitution:

-> Article 350: Providing primary education in mother tongue for people of minority class
-> Article 351: Duty to spread Hindi Language amongst people of India
-> Article 335: To appoint SC, ST in state and union services

DPSP are  Affected by Western Liberalism

Some Important DPSPs

Article 44: Uniform Civil Code
Article 45: Free and Compulsory Education for Children
Article 50: Separation of Judiciary from Public Services
Article 51: Development of International peace and Security
Article 49: Protection of National and Historical Monuments

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